Behaviourism History, Principles Contributions

Behaviourism: History, Principles Contributions Abstract Behaviourism focuses its perspective on the external environment as being the stimuli for behaviour instead of internal events such as consciousness. John B. Watson is often noted as the father of behaviourism, though its theories were being studied years before hand. A talk by Watson on his manifesto in 1913 was said to be the formal founding of behaviourism where he described the principles of behaviourism and dismissed other notions. Though behaviourism did not become a highly accepted view in psychology, it did have its contributions to the overall field. Behaviourism emerged as a new field of psychology during the early twentieth century. It differentiated†¦show more content†¦It was only during a lecture in 1913, when Watson’s manifesto, â€Å"Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It† was said to be the formal founding of behaviourism quoting: Psychology as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behaviour. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependant upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms on consciousness. (p. 158) Watson’s objective as we saw, fully dismissed the role of consciousness and it’s effect on behaviour. He further went on to state that psychology should only use objective observational data and not introspective data, which he thought unreliable (O’Neil, 1995). As with the Russian psychologists, Watson agreed that consciousness does not cause behaviour. It was in 1919, that Watson used Pavlov’s stimulus and response connection to explain human behaviour and again agreeing that its connection is physiological and mechanical (O’Neil, 1995). In Watsonian behaviourism, there were four types of behaviours, which are explicit learned behaviour (e.g. talking), implicit learned behaviour (e.g. increase heart rate upon an exam), explicit unlearned behaviour (e.g. blinking) and finally implicit unlearned behaviourShow MoreRelatedBiography Of John B. Watson1180 Words   |  5 Pagesthe school of behaviourism in 1913, his now renown lecture given at Columbia University begun the official founding of behaviourism and he became well-known for his â€Å"Little Albert† study that demonstrated how experience rearranged the stimuli that caused emotional responses such as fear, rage and love. Watson may have founded behaviourism but he paved the way for many individual functionalists such as Ivan Sechenov, Ivan Pavlov, and Vladimir Bechterev to make their own contributions to the broaderRead MoreThe Theory Of The Mind And Behavior1264 Words   |  6 PagesIt is difficult to tie together the infinite pools of facts about the history of Psychology. We can trace it back to its roots, held deep in philosophy; even ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato introduced the concept of Anamnesis, suggesting that we are born with imprinted knowledge. Aristotle, a student of Plato, theorized the concept that we were born a blank canvas and the development of our minds are sculpted by our experience, demonstrating that modern psychological debates of nature VSRead MoreOrigins of Behaviorism Essay1714 Words   |  7 Pages Behaviourism originated with the work of John B. Watson from 1913. Behaviourism is based on the following sets of claims: (1) Psychology is the study of behaviour. Psychology is not the science of mind. This statement also forms a type of behaviourism: â€Å"Methodological† behaviourism claims that psychology should concern itself with the behaviour of organisms (human and non-human)Read MoreComparison of Behaviorism and the Humanistic Approach3225 Words   |  13 Pageswas developed upon the limitations of behaviourism. The humanistic approach is often referred to as the â€Å"third force† in psychology coming after psychoanalysis and behaviourism; it is an alternative approach to psychology (Maslow, 1968). It offered a more wholesome approach to psychology at the time in comparison to behaviourism and psychoanalysis. This essay will compare and contrast behaviourism and humanistic psychology; it will focus on their contributions to psychological theory and their applicationsRead MoreEssay on The History of Psychology1423 Words   |  6 PagesThe History of Psychology In order to discuss Psychologys history, it is important to understand that psychology still does not have one unifying approach unlike the natural sciences; even the definition of Psychology and what it truly means is still undecided. However I shall attempt to review chronologically its philosophical origins, include how the science of Physics and Biology were placedRead More‘Behaviourists Explain Maladaptive Behaviour in Terms of the Learning Principles That Sustain and Maintain It. Discuss This Statement and Show How a Behaviourist’s Approach to Therapy Is in Stark Contrast to a Psychoanalytic.’2499 Words   |  10 Pagesexplain maladaptive behaviour in terms of the learning principles that sustain and maintain it. Discuss this statement and show how a behaviourist’s approach to therapy is in stark contrast to a psychoanalytic.’ Introduction In this essay I intend to compare and contrast the behaviourist perspective with a psychoanalytical approach to therapy, in relation to the above statement and will explore their fundamental principles and differences. Throughout the centuries, differentRead MorePsychological Approaches : Behaviorism, Cognitive And Humanistic Approach1659 Words   |  7 Pages1.1 Analysis of three psychological approaches; behaviourism, cognitive and humanistic. Three psychological approaches will be discussed in this essay, it will analyse the strengths and limitations of each the humanistic, cognitive and the humanistic approach. This essay will consider the contributions made to therapies in the modern life; evaluate how valid the methodology is using case studies to back up these theories and how they contribute to each other to becoming an approach. The behaviouristRead MoreAlbert Bandura s Theory Of Radical Behaviorism Theory2011 Words   |  9 Pagesexplanation may better reflect the overall complex nature of the fundamental underlying concept that is under scrutiny (Epstein, 1984). Albert Bandura s social cognitive theory and B. F. Skinner s theory of radical behaviourism have provided two of the most influential contributions to psychology, and when examining Skinner and Bandura s theories, this notion of parsimony becomes highly prevalent, as it is the most significant way in which the two theories differ. This stark contrast in parsimonyRead MoreI Am Looking At Where Psychology As A Discipline1361 Words   |  6 PagesHistory of Psychology In this essay I am looking at where Psychology as a discipline has come from and what affects these early ideas have had on psychology today, Psychology as a whole has stemmed from a number of different areas of study from Physics to Biology, But the first Psychological foundations are rooted in philosophy, which to this day propels psychological inquiry in areas such as language acquisition, consciousness, and even vision among many others. While the great philosophicalRead MoreEssay about History of Psychology1417 Words   |  6 Pagesgained its literal meaning: The study of behaviour. In studies today psychology is defined as the scientific and systematic study of human and animal behaviour. The term psychology has a long history but the psychology as an independent discipline is fairly new. Psychology started, and had a long history, as a topic within the fields of philosophy and physiology. It then became an independent field of its own through the work of the German Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology

Essay Race and Political Power in the Pre-Civil War Period

Race and Political Power in the Pre-Civil War Period How did race translate itself into political power during this period, and how did Blacks attempt to combat that power. Racism has been the most provocative topic in American history; it has seemed to transcend other struggles, and fester its way into almost every facet of American culture. It has grown like weeds in an unattended garden in to the ideology of America. Politicians use it as a tool for reelection, corporations use it as a way to exploit, and the media uses it as a way to control. But the underlying question is where did it come from, how did it translate itself into political power, and how and what did African Americans do to combat that power. Many of the answers to†¦show more content†¦Central to these laws was the provision that black slaves, and the children of slave women, would serve for life. This premise, combined with the natural population growth among the slaves, meant that slavery could survive and grow even after slave imports were outlawed in 1808. This was one of the first instances of race translating itself into political power in early colonial America. By the middle of the 18th century slavery was widely accepted in the colonies. There was no way to hide it, between 1680 and 1750 the proportion of slaves in America grew from 4.6 of the population to over 20 percent. In the southern colonies slavery went from about 5 percent to 40 percent of the population. Throughout most of the colonial period, opposition to slavery among white Americans was virtually nonexistent. Settlers in the 17th and early 18th centuries came from sharply stratified societies in which the wealthy savagely exploited members of the lower classes. Lacking a later generation’s belief in natural human equality, they saw little reason to question the enslavement of Africans. As they sought to mold a docile labor force, planters resorted to harsh, repressive measures that included liberal use of whipping and branding. That way of thinking would change, as the colonies would move toward war. The coming of the American Revolution would change the way Americans thought about slavery. In response to theirShow MoreRelatedThe American Civil War : Censorship And The Passage Of Time1603 Words   |  7 Pages The American Civil War has captured the popular imagination of the world for more than a hundred and fifty years. Academic scholars and neophyte history buffs alike have published thousands of books on the subject, adding to a growing canon of Civil War literature and knowledge. Little attention is paid, however, to the intimate personal lives and sexual intimacies of the people who lived during that crucial period in American history. Historians pay even less attention to those figures who existedRead MoreWoman Of Color And Privilege1166 Words   |  5 Pagesracial hierarchy were not strictly enforced, especially when it came to propertied and wealthy planters such as David Dickson who chose to raise his mixed-race daughter at home. Amanda Dickson’s experience s during Reconstruction demonstrate that she had much more freedom after slavery was abolished than may have been expected before the Civil War. Amanda Dickson’s experiences and those of her mother in particular do not fit the presumed mold of oppressed slave with no opportunity for a better lifeRead MoreJIM CORW LAWS Essay1524 Words   |  7 PagesIn 1865, four million Americans who were called slaves simply because they were born black, were now free with an expectation that they would enjoy all civil liberties. The post-Civil War period of Reconstruction provided freedmen with various rights, but in little over a decade, the promise of emancipation and equal rights was gone, replaced by rigid system of laws designed to keep blacks from experiencing any of their newly achieved rights, which is known as the era of Jim Crow, the American formRead MoreTerrorism Is A Modern Political And Economic Topic On America1376 Words   |  6 PagesTerrorism has become a modern politi cal and economic topic in America. It is the existence of Terrorists attacks in America that has changed the way people travels both domestic and foreign and also now viewed as an issue and conflicts that exist within the nation’s borders and domestically (Shemella, 373 ). The United States has since be a country with ideal ability to protect the many citizens from attacks and live in peace, but the infiltration of terrorist has kept a change in Americans heartRead MoreThe Civil War : America s Second Revolution1658 Words   |  7 Pagesmarked the beginning of the Civil War, often dubbed as America’s â€Å"Second Revolution.† This war ushered in a new political landscape in which the federal government reclaimed political power over the states allowing it to commence a revitalization of the Constitution. This revitalization, which fell under the Era of Reconstruction, granted a large- scale social development for African Americans initiating this social revolu tion. Such a dramatic advancement for the â€Å"inferior race† sparked opposition amongstRead MoreMargaret Walker s Portrayal Of The White Characters1346 Words   |  6 Pagesin the 1960’s during the Civil Rights Movement. Critics during that time found the portrayal of the white characters insulting, because they were too well balanced in comparison to the white citizens and slave owners in the 1800’s. I personally disagree with these critiques, and argue that the white characters Walker writes about before the Civil War, are given are given a balanced presentation in order to juxtapose the white characters she describes after the Civil War. Walker’s description of theRead MoreDiscrimination And The War At Appomattox Court House1486 Words   |  6 Pagesyears to come. American history has seen its share of discrimination, perhaps none more evident than the mid-19th century. Political tensions between northern and southern states concerning statesâ€⠄¢ rights and slavery sent the country into turmoil. The bloodiest battle in American history soon began and the country would never be the same again. However, after the conclusion of the war at Appomattox Court House, the definition of American citizenship and personal liberties would be changed forever. UnfortunatelyRead MoreEssay on Reconstruction After the Civil War934 Words   |  4 PagesThe period of Reconstruction began during the Civil War and ended in 1877. This era is known for the advancements made in favor of racial equality. These improvements included the fourteenth amendment (citizenship and equal protection under the law to blacks) and the fifteenth amendment (voting rights for blacks) of the Constitution. Yet, with the end of Reconstruction in 1877, the Republican Party lost control of the southern governments and the Democratic Party took over. This shift in power wasRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy : Reasons For The Civil Rights Movement883 Words   |  4 PagesMinh P ham Mr. Robins Pre- AP U.S. History 20 October 2015 Kennedy: Reasons to Remember the Name John Fitzgerald Kennedy, born in 1917, was the youngest ever to be elected president in the United States history, also the youngest to leave office when he was assassinated 3 years after his election. Regardless of his short time in office, he left an astonishing impact on every single individual and on the country as a whole. As a president, John F. Kennedy was successful in managing the economy asRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1361 Words   |  6 PagesMichelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness The premise of the ‘The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness’ by Michelle Alexander, is to refute claims that racism is dead and argue that the War on Drugs and the federal drug policy unfairly targets communities of color, keeping a large majority of black men of varying ages in a cycle of poverty and behind bars. The author proves that racism thrives by highlighting the African Americans

Short story Essay Example For Students

Short story Essay The assumption is often made that short stories are weak and lack expression, simply because of their physical size limitations. However, if one were to sit down and read just a few of New Zealands finest short stories, attitudes would almost certainly change for the better. Maurice Gee for instance, A fine novelist and artistic hero for some, holds many admirable short stories to his name. Gees famous story A Glorious Morning, Comrade proves to us the inherent potential to which New Zealand writers can live up to in a short story. The main purpose of a short story is to enable the reader to picture in their mind the images which the writer paints. Consequently, more demands are made on the reader. Since words are strictly limited, characters must be created very quickly. It is for this reason that writers use a plunge technique. The reader is plunged into the plot by being forced to start in the middle of the action. For instance: A Glorious morning, comrade, by Maurice Gee, and The hole that Jack dug, by Frank Sargeson. Much less detail is provided to us about the characters, so again we imagine the aspects which are not given to us. Take for example the second paragraph in Frank Sargesons The hole that Jack dug. The narrator takes less than one paragraph to describe Jack. However, using special wording, the narrator can describe him in much detail using little words to emphasize a few of Jacks unique physical aspects: The trouble with Jacks grin is that it shows too many teeth.Once Characters are established, a plot or structure will begin to form. Sometimes it will teach a lesson, Sometimes the whole story may seem pointless as is the case with The hole that Jack dug. With a little thought, one can discover the true meaning behind the plot. It may sometimes be hard, but often not impossible. Demands are again placed on the reader to think in all directions, and not just read the written text. Once the story has been read, attention must be focused not only on the concluding paragraphs, but on the concealed ideas which the writer has raised throughout the text. Small hints may be included which might not be picked up from the first examination. The way in which a certain character is described may perhaps raise a key issue, essential in the understanding of the plot. This is indeed the case in The hole that Jack Dug. The writer may cleverly use sentances of multiple meanings in order to cut the fat. For instance, A glorious morning, comrade raises the thought in the very first paragraph that Mercy, one of Mr Pitt-Rimmers daughters Tied her fathers scarf in a mean granny knot. This symbolizes Mercy as being cruel and heartless despite her gentle and forgiving name. It also denotes that Mr Pitt-Rimmer is lonely and aware of the resentments that run through his family. A comparison can often be made between two short stories. For instance, The hole that Jack Dug and A Glorious morning, Comrade. The first seems to have no point to it, and the latter informs the reader of the urge cranky old men possess to break out and run their own lives. In brief, the reader is forced to think with an open mind, which is demanding, especially when an in-depth approach is required for the understanding of the plot. Depending on the writers aim, demand on the reader will vary significantly, and with careful practices at hand, a firm grasp will be achieved.

Mozarts Don Giovanni Essays - Operas, Drammi Giocosi, Don Giovanni

Mozart's Don Giovanni Giving Character's Character One of the most interesting challenges in operatic composition , is composing for all the specific characters. A composer has to distinguish between characters through his music. Jan can't sound like Fran , and Dan can't sound like Stan. Each character must have his or her own traits. Mozart's opera , Don Giovanni , provides us with many different characters to compare and contrast. One scene in particular lends itself to the comparison of Don Giovanni , Leporello , and The Commendator. Scene fifteen of Act two, places all three characters in close interaction with each other , making it easy to compare and find out how Mozart and his Librettist Lorenzo da Ponte brought them all to life. Lorenzo de Ponte's libretto provides the main character traits of Don Giovanni , Leporello , and The Commendatore. It gives an easy way of distinguishing between the characters. Don Giovanni is portrayed as being smart , charming , and brave , yet selfish , arrogant , womanizing , and pompous. We see all of these traits in the final dinner scene. These opposing traits set up a love hate relationship of Don Giovanni. Leporello on the other hand , is wimpy , subservient , nervous , and a bit dumb. He is often the butt of Don Giovanni's jokes , and is always being bossed around. He can be thought of as the comic relief of the opera. In the dinner scene we get a definite feeling of Leporello being a wimpy idiot. The Commendatore returns , after being slain by Giovanni , as a ghost. He is portrayed as being a mighty , powerful , and ominous. He tries to make Don Giovanni repent for all the terrible things he did. In the dinner scene he is truly a powerful being from beyond. His power is demonstrated when he sends Don Giovanni down to hell. The above character descriptions are what Lorenzo da Ponte set up for Mozart to compose his music to. We now can observer how Mozart used musical devices to give each character his own flavor. One area to compare is the rhythmic traits of each character's musical lines. Leporello's nervousness and fear in the dinner scene is exemplified through a very jumpy unsteady rhythmic vocal line. (ex 1) Mozart really makes his nervousness obvious by giving him notes no longer in value then a quarter note from m.425 to m.629. Mozart uses dotted eights to sixteenth notes to make his part especially disjointed. This creates the effect of someone shaking from fear as they are trying to speak. Mozart also uses a continuous triple pattern , which begins at measure 470 , to create a rambling effect. (ex 2) Leporello seems to have lost his sanity from fright of the ghost and is now babbling incoherently. Don Giovanni and the Commendatore have very different rhythmic vocal parts then Leporello. They are much more bold and brave then Leporello , so Mozart gives them a more solid rhythm. The Commendatore has the most stable part out of all of them. He has many whole and half notes. The stability of the rhythm adds to the confidence and power of his character. (ex 3) The only time his rhythm becomes quicker is when he is yelling at Don Giovanni to repent. Don Giovanni shares many similar rhythmic traits as the Commedatore , although it has a little more diversity. Don Giovanni shifts from being comfortable to uncomfortable throughout the dinner scene. Mozart appropriatly varies the speed of Don Giovanni's rhythm. An example of this occurs at measure 522. (ex 4) Previous to this measure, Don Giovanni has a stable rhythm with most words occurring on the strong beats. (ex 5) It abruptly changes to a short offbeat eight note figure. Rhythm is not the only musical area that Mozart crafts specifically for each character. He also uses certain melodic lines for each character. The Commendatore's melodic lines are the most striking. He often has huge leaps in his part , giving the listener a full dose of the impeding force he is. The space creates a feeling of something bigger and more powerful then a