Behaviourism History, Principles Contributions

Behaviourism: History, Principles Contributions Abstract Behaviourism focuses its perspective on the external environment as being the stimuli for behaviour instead of internal events such as consciousness. John B. Watson is often noted as the father of behaviourism, though its theories were being studied years before hand. A talk by Watson on his manifesto in 1913 was said to be the formal founding of behaviourism where he described the principles of behaviourism and dismissed other notions. Though behaviourism did not become a highly accepted view in psychology, it did have its contributions to the overall field. Behaviourism emerged as a new field of psychology during the early twentieth century. It differentiated†¦show more content†¦It was only during a lecture in 1913, when Watson’s manifesto, â€Å"Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It† was said to be the formal founding of behaviourism quoting: Psychology as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behaviour. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependant upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms on consciousness. (p. 158) Watson’s objective as we saw, fully dismissed the role of consciousness and it’s effect on behaviour. He further went on to state that psychology should only use objective observational data and not introspective data, which he thought unreliable (O’Neil, 1995). As with the Russian psychologists, Watson agreed that consciousness does not cause behaviour. It was in 1919, that Watson used Pavlov’s stimulus and response connection to explain human behaviour and again agreeing that its connection is physiological and mechanical (O’Neil, 1995). In Watsonian behaviourism, there were four types of behaviours, which are explicit learned behaviour (e.g. talking), implicit learned behaviour (e.g. increase heart rate upon an exam), explicit unlearned behaviour (e.g. blinking) and finally implicit unlearned behaviourShow MoreRelatedBiography Of John B. Watson1180 Words   |  5 Pagesthe school of behaviourism in 1913, his now renown lecture given at Columbia University begun the official founding of behaviourism and he became well-known for his â€Å"Little Albert† study that demonstrated how experience rearranged the stimuli that caused emotional responses such as fear, rage and love. Watson may have founded behaviourism but he paved the way for many individual functionalists such as Ivan Sechenov, Ivan Pavlov, and Vladimir Bechterev to make their own contributions to the broaderRead MoreThe Theory Of The Mind And Behavior1264 Words   |  6 PagesIt is difficult to tie together the infinite pools of facts about the history of Psychology. We can trace it back to its roots, held deep in philosophy; even ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato introduced the concept of Anamnesis, suggesting that we are born with imprinted knowledge. Aristotle, a student of Plato, theorized the concept that we were born a blank canvas and the development of our minds are sculpted by our experience, demonstrating that modern psychological debates of nature VSRead MoreOrigins of Behaviorism Essay1714 Words   |  7 Pages Behaviourism originated with the work of John B. Watson from 1913. Behaviourism is based on the following sets of claims: (1) Psychology is the study of behaviour. Psychology is not the science of mind. This statement also forms a type of behaviourism: â€Å"Methodological† behaviourism claims that psychology should concern itself with the behaviour of organisms (human and non-human)Read MoreComparison of Behaviorism and the Humanistic Approach3225 Words   |  13 Pageswas developed upon the limitations of behaviourism. The humanistic approach is often referred to as the â€Å"third force† in psychology coming after psychoanalysis and behaviourism; it is an alternative approach to psychology (Maslow, 1968). It offered a more wholesome approach to psychology at the time in comparison to behaviourism and psychoanalysis. This essay will compare and contrast behaviourism and humanistic psychology; it will focus on their contributions to psychological theory and their applicationsRead MoreEssay on The History of Psychology1423 Words   |  6 PagesThe History of Psychology In order to discuss Psychologys history, it is important to understand that psychology still does not have one unifying approach unlike the natural sciences; even the definition of Psychology and what it truly means is still undecided. However I shall attempt to review chronologically its philosophical origins, include how the science of Physics and Biology were placedRead More‘Behaviourists Explain Maladaptive Behaviour in Terms of the Learning Principles That Sustain and Maintain It. Discuss This Statement and Show How a Behaviourist’s Approach to Therapy Is in Stark Contrast to a Psychoanalytic.’2499 Words   |  10 Pagesexplain maladaptive behaviour in terms of the learning principles that sustain and maintain it. Discuss this statement and show how a behaviourist’s approach to therapy is in stark contrast to a psychoanalytic.’ Introduction In this essay I intend to compare and contrast the behaviourist perspective with a psychoanalytical approach to therapy, in relation to the above statement and will explore their fundamental principles and differences. Throughout the centuries, differentRead MorePsychological Approaches : Behaviorism, Cognitive And Humanistic Approach1659 Words   |  7 Pages1.1 Analysis of three psychological approaches; behaviourism, cognitive and humanistic. Three psychological approaches will be discussed in this essay, it will analyse the strengths and limitations of each the humanistic, cognitive and the humanistic approach. This essay will consider the contributions made to therapies in the modern life; evaluate how valid the methodology is using case studies to back up these theories and how they contribute to each other to becoming an approach. The behaviouristRead MoreAlbert Bandura s Theory Of Radical Behaviorism Theory2011 Words   |  9 Pagesexplanation may better reflect the overall complex nature of the fundamental underlying concept that is under scrutiny (Epstein, 1984). Albert Bandura s social cognitive theory and B. F. Skinner s theory of radical behaviourism have provided two of the most influential contributions to psychology, and when examining Skinner and Bandura s theories, this notion of parsimony becomes highly prevalent, as it is the most significant way in which the two theories differ. This stark contrast in parsimonyRead MoreI Am Looking At Where Psychology As A Discipline1361 Words   |  6 PagesHistory of Psychology In this essay I am looking at where Psychology as a discipline has come from and what affects these early ideas have had on psychology today, Psychology as a whole has stemmed from a number of different areas of study from Physics to Biology, But the first Psychological foundations are rooted in philosophy, which to this day propels psychological inquiry in areas such as language acquisition, consciousness, and even vision among many others. While the great philosophicalRead MoreEssay about History of Psychology1417 Words   |  6 Pagesgained its literal meaning: The study of behaviour. In studies today psychology is defined as the scientific and systematic study of human and animal behaviour. The term psychology has a long history but the psychology as an independent discipline is fairly new. Psychology started, and had a long history, as a topic within the fields of philosophy and physiology. It then became an independent field of its own through the work of the German Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology

Essay Race and Political Power in the Pre-Civil War Period

Race and Political Power in the Pre-Civil War Period How did race translate itself into political power during this period, and how did Blacks attempt to combat that power. Racism has been the most provocative topic in American history; it has seemed to transcend other struggles, and fester its way into almost every facet of American culture. It has grown like weeds in an unattended garden in to the ideology of America. Politicians use it as a tool for reelection, corporations use it as a way to exploit, and the media uses it as a way to control. But the underlying question is where did it come from, how did it translate itself into political power, and how and what did African Americans do to combat that power. Many of the answers to†¦show more content†¦Central to these laws was the provision that black slaves, and the children of slave women, would serve for life. This premise, combined with the natural population growth among the slaves, meant that slavery could survive and grow even after slave imports were outlawed in 1808. This was one of the first instances of race translating itself into political power in early colonial America. By the middle of the 18th century slavery was widely accepted in the colonies. There was no way to hide it, between 1680 and 1750 the proportion of slaves in America grew from 4.6 of the population to over 20 percent. In the southern colonies slavery went from about 5 percent to 40 percent of the population. Throughout most of the colonial period, opposition to slavery among white Americans was virtually nonexistent. Settlers in the 17th and early 18th centuries came from sharply stratified societies in which the wealthy savagely exploited members of the lower classes. Lacking a later generation’s belief in natural human equality, they saw little reason to question the enslavement of Africans. As they sought to mold a docile labor force, planters resorted to harsh, repressive measures that included liberal use of whipping and branding. That way of thinking would change, as the colonies would move toward war. The coming of the American Revolution would change the way Americans thought about slavery. In response to theirShow MoreRelatedThe American Civil War : Censorship And The Passage Of Time1603 Words   |  7 Pages The American Civil War has captured the popular imagination of the world for more than a hundred and fifty years. Academic scholars and neophyte history buffs alike have published thousands of books on the subject, adding to a growing canon of Civil War literature and knowledge. Little attention is paid, however, to the intimate personal lives and sexual intimacies of the people who lived during that crucial period in American history. Historians pay even less attention to those figures who existedRead MoreWoman Of Color And Privilege1166 Words   |  5 Pagesracial hierarchy were not strictly enforced, especially when it came to propertied and wealthy planters such as David Dickson who chose to raise his mixed-race daughter at home. Amanda Dickson’s experience s during Reconstruction demonstrate that she had much more freedom after slavery was abolished than may have been expected before the Civil War. Amanda Dickson’s experiences and those of her mother in particular do not fit the presumed mold of oppressed slave with no opportunity for a better lifeRead MoreJIM CORW LAWS Essay1524 Words   |  7 PagesIn 1865, four million Americans who were called slaves simply because they were born black, were now free with an expectation that they would enjoy all civil liberties. The post-Civil War period of Reconstruction provided freedmen with various rights, but in little over a decade, the promise of emancipation and equal rights was gone, replaced by rigid system of laws designed to keep blacks from experiencing any of their newly achieved rights, which is known as the era of Jim Crow, the American formRead MoreTerrorism Is A Modern Political And Economic Topic On America1376 Words   |  6 PagesTerrorism has become a modern politi cal and economic topic in America. It is the existence of Terrorists attacks in America that has changed the way people travels both domestic and foreign and also now viewed as an issue and conflicts that exist within the nation’s borders and domestically (Shemella, 373 ). The United States has since be a country with ideal ability to protect the many citizens from attacks and live in peace, but the infiltration of terrorist has kept a change in Americans heartRead MoreThe Civil War : America s Second Revolution1658 Words   |  7 Pagesmarked the beginning of the Civil War, often dubbed as America’s â€Å"Second Revolution.† This war ushered in a new political landscape in which the federal government reclaimed political power over the states allowing it to commence a revitalization of the Constitution. This revitalization, which fell under the Era of Reconstruction, granted a large- scale social development for African Americans initiating this social revolu tion. Such a dramatic advancement for the â€Å"inferior race† sparked opposition amongstRead MoreMargaret Walker s Portrayal Of The White Characters1346 Words   |  6 Pagesin the 1960’s during the Civil Rights Movement. Critics during that time found the portrayal of the white characters insulting, because they were too well balanced in comparison to the white citizens and slave owners in the 1800’s. I personally disagree with these critiques, and argue that the white characters Walker writes about before the Civil War, are given are given a balanced presentation in order to juxtapose the white characters she describes after the Civil War. Walker’s description of theRead MoreDiscrimination And The War At Appomattox Court House1486 Words   |  6 Pagesyears to come. American history has seen its share of discrimination, perhaps none more evident than the mid-19th century. Political tensions between northern and southern states concerning statesâ€⠄¢ rights and slavery sent the country into turmoil. The bloodiest battle in American history soon began and the country would never be the same again. However, after the conclusion of the war at Appomattox Court House, the definition of American citizenship and personal liberties would be changed forever. UnfortunatelyRead MoreEssay on Reconstruction After the Civil War934 Words   |  4 PagesThe period of Reconstruction began during the Civil War and ended in 1877. This era is known for the advancements made in favor of racial equality. These improvements included the fourteenth amendment (citizenship and equal protection under the law to blacks) and the fifteenth amendment (voting rights for blacks) of the Constitution. Yet, with the end of Reconstruction in 1877, the Republican Party lost control of the southern governments and the Democratic Party took over. This shift in power wasRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy : Reasons For The Civil Rights Movement883 Words   |  4 PagesMinh P ham Mr. Robins Pre- AP U.S. History 20 October 2015 Kennedy: Reasons to Remember the Name John Fitzgerald Kennedy, born in 1917, was the youngest ever to be elected president in the United States history, also the youngest to leave office when he was assassinated 3 years after his election. Regardless of his short time in office, he left an astonishing impact on every single individual and on the country as a whole. As a president, John F. Kennedy was successful in managing the economy asRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1361 Words   |  6 PagesMichelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness The premise of the ‘The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness’ by Michelle Alexander, is to refute claims that racism is dead and argue that the War on Drugs and the federal drug policy unfairly targets communities of color, keeping a large majority of black men of varying ages in a cycle of poverty and behind bars. The author proves that racism thrives by highlighting the African Americans

Short story Essay Example For Students

Short story Essay The assumption is often made that short stories are weak and lack expression, simply because of their physical size limitations. However, if one were to sit down and read just a few of New Zealands finest short stories, attitudes would almost certainly change for the better. Maurice Gee for instance, A fine novelist and artistic hero for some, holds many admirable short stories to his name. Gees famous story A Glorious Morning, Comrade proves to us the inherent potential to which New Zealand writers can live up to in a short story. The main purpose of a short story is to enable the reader to picture in their mind the images which the writer paints. Consequently, more demands are made on the reader. Since words are strictly limited, characters must be created very quickly. It is for this reason that writers use a plunge technique. The reader is plunged into the plot by being forced to start in the middle of the action. For instance: A Glorious morning, comrade, by Maurice Gee, and The hole that Jack dug, by Frank Sargeson. Much less detail is provided to us about the characters, so again we imagine the aspects which are not given to us. Take for example the second paragraph in Frank Sargesons The hole that Jack dug. The narrator takes less than one paragraph to describe Jack. However, using special wording, the narrator can describe him in much detail using little words to emphasize a few of Jacks unique physical aspects: The trouble with Jacks grin is that it shows too many teeth.Once Characters are established, a plot or structure will begin to form. Sometimes it will teach a lesson, Sometimes the whole story may seem pointless as is the case with The hole that Jack dug. With a little thought, one can discover the true meaning behind the plot. It may sometimes be hard, but often not impossible. Demands are again placed on the reader to think in all directions, and not just read the written text. Once the story has been read, attention must be focused not only on the concluding paragraphs, but on the concealed ideas which the writer has raised throughout the text. Small hints may be included which might not be picked up from the first examination. The way in which a certain character is described may perhaps raise a key issue, essential in the understanding of the plot. This is indeed the case in The hole that Jack Dug. The writer may cleverly use sentances of multiple meanings in order to cut the fat. For instance, A glorious morning, comrade raises the thought in the very first paragraph that Mercy, one of Mr Pitt-Rimmers daughters Tied her fathers scarf in a mean granny knot. This symbolizes Mercy as being cruel and heartless despite her gentle and forgiving name. It also denotes that Mr Pitt-Rimmer is lonely and aware of the resentments that run through his family. A comparison can often be made between two short stories. For instance, The hole that Jack Dug and A Glorious morning, Comrade. The first seems to have no point to it, and the latter informs the reader of the urge cranky old men possess to break out and run their own lives. In brief, the reader is forced to think with an open mind, which is demanding, especially when an in-depth approach is required for the understanding of the plot. Depending on the writers aim, demand on the reader will vary significantly, and with careful practices at hand, a firm grasp will be achieved.

Mozarts Don Giovanni Essays - Operas, Drammi Giocosi, Don Giovanni

Mozart's Don Giovanni Giving Character's Character One of the most interesting challenges in operatic composition , is composing for all the specific characters. A composer has to distinguish between characters through his music. Jan can't sound like Fran , and Dan can't sound like Stan. Each character must have his or her own traits. Mozart's opera , Don Giovanni , provides us with many different characters to compare and contrast. One scene in particular lends itself to the comparison of Don Giovanni , Leporello , and The Commendator. Scene fifteen of Act two, places all three characters in close interaction with each other , making it easy to compare and find out how Mozart and his Librettist Lorenzo da Ponte brought them all to life. Lorenzo de Ponte's libretto provides the main character traits of Don Giovanni , Leporello , and The Commendatore. It gives an easy way of distinguishing between the characters. Don Giovanni is portrayed as being smart , charming , and brave , yet selfish , arrogant , womanizing , and pompous. We see all of these traits in the final dinner scene. These opposing traits set up a love hate relationship of Don Giovanni. Leporello on the other hand , is wimpy , subservient , nervous , and a bit dumb. He is often the butt of Don Giovanni's jokes , and is always being bossed around. He can be thought of as the comic relief of the opera. In the dinner scene we get a definite feeling of Leporello being a wimpy idiot. The Commendatore returns , after being slain by Giovanni , as a ghost. He is portrayed as being a mighty , powerful , and ominous. He tries to make Don Giovanni repent for all the terrible things he did. In the dinner scene he is truly a powerful being from beyond. His power is demonstrated when he sends Don Giovanni down to hell. The above character descriptions are what Lorenzo da Ponte set up for Mozart to compose his music to. We now can observer how Mozart used musical devices to give each character his own flavor. One area to compare is the rhythmic traits of each character's musical lines. Leporello's nervousness and fear in the dinner scene is exemplified through a very jumpy unsteady rhythmic vocal line. (ex 1) Mozart really makes his nervousness obvious by giving him notes no longer in value then a quarter note from m.425 to m.629. Mozart uses dotted eights to sixteenth notes to make his part especially disjointed. This creates the effect of someone shaking from fear as they are trying to speak. Mozart also uses a continuous triple pattern , which begins at measure 470 , to create a rambling effect. (ex 2) Leporello seems to have lost his sanity from fright of the ghost and is now babbling incoherently. Don Giovanni and the Commendatore have very different rhythmic vocal parts then Leporello. They are much more bold and brave then Leporello , so Mozart gives them a more solid rhythm. The Commendatore has the most stable part out of all of them. He has many whole and half notes. The stability of the rhythm adds to the confidence and power of his character. (ex 3) The only time his rhythm becomes quicker is when he is yelling at Don Giovanni to repent. Don Giovanni shares many similar rhythmic traits as the Commedatore , although it has a little more diversity. Don Giovanni shifts from being comfortable to uncomfortable throughout the dinner scene. Mozart appropriatly varies the speed of Don Giovanni's rhythm. An example of this occurs at measure 522. (ex 4) Previous to this measure, Don Giovanni has a stable rhythm with most words occurring on the strong beats. (ex 5) It abruptly changes to a short offbeat eight note figure. Rhythm is not the only musical area that Mozart crafts specifically for each character. He also uses certain melodic lines for each character. The Commendatore's melodic lines are the most striking. He often has huge leaps in his part , giving the listener a full dose of the impeding force he is. The space creates a feeling of something bigger and more powerful then a

Case Study

Case Study The topic chosen for this case study is cross cultural communication (CCC). This occurs in an environment consisting of English speakers and Greek speakers. An interesting thing in this context is the miscommunication aspects due to cultural differences in the realms of non-verbal communication (Gupta, 1998).Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Case Study Cross Culture Communication specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Personal observation on this issue has revealed the disparities that exist amid cultures in the realms of communication and other relevant provisions. The use of non-verbal forms of communication is pertinent in this context as evident from the observations made (Mayers, 2008). Researching on this topic has revealed a lot in the communication arenas despite the challenges (Friginal, 2009). The data collected from various sources as well as the literature review conducted demonstrate the variability that exists in the communication aspects (CCC). Additionally, this data is usable in unveiling the patterns of behavior relevant in this context (Lewis, 1999). Consequently, the concepts attained from this study will be used to uncover the relevancy of non-verbal communication and how such issues can distort appropriate communication among people in a similar environment (Mattock, 2003). The underlying questions in this study incorporate; What are the cross cultural impacts on the non-verbal communication? Why is their massive misunderstanding during cross cultural communication (non-verbal)? Is it possible to minimize misunderstandings during the cross cultural communication? What are the common trends in this study with regard to cross cultural communication? Data Collected The data was collected through personal observation on how individuals from varying cultures communicate non-verbally and the characterizing misunderstandings in this context (Reynolds Valentine, 2011). Most of t he participants were immigrants from Greece; nonetheless, the conversations were observed instinctively as they occurred. The analyzed data has emerged from 10 observations made regarding the study. Sample of the data collected Nonverbal conversations (translated verbally) between English speakers and Greek speakers (10 participants) 1: Jeff (an English speaker) inquiring some information from Kretez (a Greek native)Advertising Looking for case study on communication strategies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More J: Kretez, do you know who took the keys for inner doors of the library? K: Ok, I am coming J: Do you really understand my question? K: I think the teacher will come soon 2: Jeremy (an English speaker) instructing Grito (Greek speaker) on how to turn on a computer J: Grito, press on the power button, it is right on the corner G: (looks stranded but compelled to talk) Mmm†¦ should I stand up?Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Case Study Cross Culture Communication specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More J: I am asking you to turn on the computer, are you ignorant? G: I saw the book; its cover had an image of Chinese president (Jeremy perplexed and switches on the computer by himself) 3: Paul (English) informing Galez (Greek) about the following week’s sports event P: Galez, are you aware of the next week’s games? G: I think the movie was very interesting. Mmm†¦ it took almost three hours (he smiles to Paul) P: We have important games next week and we need strong participants. G: I participated in the last Olympic Games in BeijingAdvertising Looking for case study on communication strategies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More 4. Phillips (English) asking Carlito (Greek) to help him carry a box P. (looks stranded as the box is too heavy. He sees Carlito passing by) Hey man! Lend me a hand here? (To mean help me) C: I am fine†¦ (Extends his hands as if he wants to greet Phillips) P: Let’s carry this box together if you don’t mind C: I will be OK at home (walks away) 5. Christine (English) asks Tyrra (Greek) for proper direction to the principal’s office when he first visited the school C: Where is the principal’s office? T: (stranded)†¦ should I come? C: I want to see the principal, where is his office? T: Some pupils are playing in the field; I am yet to join them (he walks away while Christine seeks help from another person) 6: Jimmy (English) asks Fridriq (Greek) his hobbies J: Fridriq, what do you like doing most when you are free? F: The schools will close this summer, are you aware? (Thought Jimmy asked him on the school closure) J: Your hobbies please†¦! F. I don’t need to play now, I must revise for exams 7: Chalton (English) inquires Wandete’s (Greek) performance in last semester’s exams C: Wandete, how did you perform last semester? I hope it was wonderful? W: I have not registered this semester (unaware of the asked question) 8: Dancan (English) seeks Tewuli’s (Greek) support on his bid for students’ leadership D: (Smiles) I am going for chairmanship, I need your support please T: Mmm†¦ I don’t think I will come to class today; I have not completed my project 9: Vincent (English), as the head of department, warns Garry (Greek) against his conducts in school V: (looks stern) Garry, your conducts have been wanting lately. You have to change before severe actions are taken against you G: I know I have not completed my school fees, but it will be paid soon 10: Duke (English) asks Tunga (Greek native) for a bottle of water D: I am quite thirsty, can help me with that bottle of water T: Our group work will be over soon (stares at Duke thinking he has answered him correctly) Conclusion The entire data (observations made) indicate that there is a massive miscommunication between the participants (Stringer Cassiday, 2009). This occurs due to cross-cultural disparities that affect their ultimate nonverbal communication efforts (Gudykunst, 2003). References Friginal, E. (2009). The language of outsourced call centers: A corpus-based study of cross-cultural interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co. Gudykunst, W. (2003). Cross-cultural and intercultural communication. London: SAGE. Gupta, N. (1998). Crosscultural communication: Global perspective. New Delhi: Concept Publications. Lewis, R. (1999). Cross cultural communication: A visual approach. Hampshire: Transcreen Publications. Mattock, J. (2003). Cross-cultural communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. Mayers, C. (2008). Turn-taking in cross-sex and cross-cultural communication. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH. Rey nolds, S. Valentine, D. (2011). Guide to cross-cultural communication. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall. Stringer, D. Cassiday, P. (2009). 52 activities for improving cross-cultural communication. Massachusetts, MA: Intercultural Press.

Haikouichthys - Facts and Figures

Haikouichthys - Facts and Figures Name: Haikouichthys (Greek for fish from Haikou); pronounced HIGH-koo-ICK-thiss Habitat: Shallow seas of Asia Historical Period: Early Cambrian (530 million years ago) Size and Weight: About one inch long and less than an ounce Diet: Small marine organisms Distinguishing Characteristics: Tiny size; fin along length of back About Haikouichthys The Cambrian period is famous for its explosion of bizarre invertebrate life forms, but this span of time also saw the evolution of the earliest almost-vertebratesmarine organisms like Haikouichthys, Pikaia and Myllokunmingia that bore the faintest outlines of backbones and had a noticeably fish-like shape. As with these other genera, whether or not Haikouichthys was technically a prehistoric fish is still a subject of debate. This was certainly one of the earliest craniates (i.e., organisms with skulls), but lacking any definitive fossil evidence, it may have had a primitive notochord running down its back rather than a true backbone. Haikouichthys and its companions did, however, introduce some features that are so commonplace now as to be completely unremarkable. For example, this creatures head was distinct from its tail, it was bilaterally symmetric (that is, its right side matched up with its left side), and it had two eyes and a mouth on its head end. By Cambrian standards, it may have been the most advanced life form of its day!

Evaluating web site audiences Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Evaluating web site audiences - Assignment Example In this way the designers present the intended audience of the brand. Firstly you may think that there are clothes only for women. It is the main idea of the designer who puts women on the top among the expected buyers. While exploring the site I saw that there were also collections for men, young people and children, so we see that this is the brand for all ages and genders. By writing prices near the goods the designers show that this brand is created for successful and high-income people. The second site is oriented for young women no more than 25. It is easy to see when you open it. The designers use energetic music and positive girls to represent the intended audience. So when you open the site you understand that it is for teenagers and for girls only. The site offers discounts and sales by means of which the creators try to attract people of middle income. The site of â€Å"Versace† introduces the new collections on top pages. It means that selling them is the main aim of the company. The site is designed in muted colors in order not to distract the attention of the customer. The web page of ‘Tally Weijl† uses discounts to attract people who are more interested in prices. That is why the site is very colorful and vivid. To make the site ‘Tally Weijl† easy and more comfortable in use they offer to choose the country you live in. After choosing the country the web page is displayed at your language. That is made for attracting people all over the world. There are two different styles which represent sites: classic style (â€Å"Versace†) and casual style (â€Å"Tally Weijl†). Classic style is typical for people engaged in different business spheres, open ceremonies and public interviews, while casual style is more appropriate for everyday life activities: shopping, walking, sport and so forth. Every page of â€Å"Versace† site contains logo which is an important part of the company image that is why it is easy to identify any

Analysis and Valuation of General Dynamics Essay

Analysis and Valuation of General Dynamics - Essay Example The total sales revenue was USD 30, 852. General Dynamics Corporation conducts business with worldwide government customers like governments of Australia, The United Kingdom, Switzerland, Spain, Mexico and Canada. There is a long term commitment to enhance customer relationships with regional suppliers and employers in the identified governments. The commercial business segment of the corporation entails export of business-jet aircrafts and global aircraft services. In recent years, there is significant expansion of business-jet aircraft services. Expansion of market segments is also seen in emerging markets (PRAHALAD, 2008). There is growing segment of aircraft business in the international markets. The international market segment grew by 60% in the year 2014. The company competes with both small and large companies which are specialized in capability or technology. Combat systems compete with a number of foreign and domestic companies. There is one primary competitor of Marine systems called Hurtington Ingallas Industries. The company was formerly known as Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding. The company subcontracts and partners in many programs such as SSN 774 Virginia Class Submarines. The company is involved in subcontracting and teaming relationship with the competitors. It team works, the company acts as an integrator who oversees efforts of all team members in the contract. The General Dynamics main competitors in defense market include Boeing, BAE Systems, Raytheon, Ingallas Industries, Northrop Grumman, and Lockheed Martin. The key competitors in the aircraft range include Gulfstream Competitors, Cessna, Dassault and Embraer (DAMODARAN, 2013). The main competitive factors in the aircraft market business include reliability of aircraft, performance, and aircraft safety, comfort of aircraft, in-flight productivity, timeliness, service quality, and offer of competitive prices. Aspects such as new product

Strong type of sympathy Essay Example for Free

Strong type of sympathy Essay The novel, Frankenstein, was written in 1815, when the author, Mary Shelley, was 19 years old. Marys family took her on a holiday throughout Europe. One night, in Geneva, the travelling group were quite bored, so they decided to tell ghost stories. Mary couldnt think of a story, so she went to sleep and dreamt the story of Frankenstein. There were also other influences for Frankenstein. Shelley liked the new technologies, and she always went to see the best shows. She was also interested in Luigi Galvanis work. He tried to prove dead and alive muscle used electric impulses. Shelley also liked Romantic writing, which is the concept of worshiping things natural. In the novel she shows her respect for natural beauty by showing the Artic as a place that Walton admires. She also created the gothic style of writing, which expresses a concern for identity, with the monster that has no name that wanders pointlessly. To give him a name is to give him power. Frankenstein is a story about a man from Geneva, Victor Frankenstein. He is a wealthy man that has a love for the woman he grew up with, Elisabeth. He moves to Ingolstadt to study Science and Medicine. He gets so obsessed with his ambition of finding the secret of life that he creates a monster from dead body parts. He runs from it and it plots is revenge by making Victor suffer as he did. As he follows him and tortures him, Victor meets Walton, our narrator. He sends many letters to his sister. He is similar to Victor and slightly the monster, in the way that they wish to achieve, but Victor prevents the loss of lives on Waltons ship. The monster, meanwhile, wants, but probably never will have a companion. Victor does, however, achieve his dream of finding the secret of life, although it goes horribly wrong. Neither of the protagonists dreams are what they thought they might be. Walton is an explorer that wants fame and fortune, but he also wants someone similar to him, a friend. Even though, as a Captain, he has his crew, they are expendable. He is willing to achieve by breaking any boundaries. On his deathbed, Waltons father begged him not to become an explorer, but as Walton has a rebellious behaviour, he disobeys his fathers last wish. At meeting with Victor, he changes for the better. He finds an admirable figure, someone that thinks the same way as him. Victor has already been through the pain of ambition seeking. He convinces Walton to save his crews lives and heads home. One of the lines that convince Walton is Do you share my madness? What he means is that his ambitions are madness, as they only end in disappointment. Also, as the narrator, he writes the letters to his sister, and therefore the novel, in corrupt narrative, which, in this novel, means that the story was first said by the monster, then edited by Victor to make him look like the victim, then, finally, the reader gets Waltons version on the story, who prefers Victor as he knows him and because he is similar to him. He also speaks in a romantic style, as he speaks in a way that shows the Artic as a place of beauty, whereas the other characters see it as a desolate place, with no life. Victor Frankenstein, the main character, or protagonist, is an ambitious man from Geneva. He dreams of finding the secret of life. Once he arrives in Ingolstadt, his university, he finds his work uncontrollably consuming his life. He begins with research, how he can make the perfect man from dead flesh. He decides he can sew the perfect limbs together. Then he uses the natural power of lightning (with pathetic fallacy as storms are intimidating and come on only dreary nights [It was a dreary night in November]) to put an electric shock into the dead body. This is what he believes is the secret of life. He believes his task is filled with delight and rapture, this means that before he sees the monster alive, he believes that he has already had great success over so much labour. Shelley also puts his actions into a god-like figure, which can create and destroy life as he wishes. Shelley also uses religious words, such as rapture, creator, species and even later on, demonical. Victor soon realises that his experiment is a massive failure. He expected a perfect, clever human to be produced, but he got a scarred monster that he describes as wretch. He inflicts pain, mainly emotionally, on it, by running away. As it cannot speak, the monster is left alone for dead. Victor learns that being a god isnt so easy, as when he creates the monster, he finds that he is more of a father than a god. He has responsibilities although he does not help the monster and prays cholera kills him. This shows Victor in his true form, selfish. Victor also uses romantic language to describe life. He shows that by creating life, he is doing the world good, creating an almighty species that nature will accept: A new species would accept me as its creator exclaims Victor. Shelley also portrays, as previously mentioned, the three protagonists all having similar dreams. They all just want companions. Victor wishes for Elisabeth, the monster, someone similar to him and Walton, his sister. The monsters dream is to be accepted by one person. He doesnt want money or fame, just someone that looks like him. Even at the creation of his life, all he wanted was to be accepted by everyone, but later, he saw this as being impossible. He believes that as Victor has caused him so much pain, all he wants is for Victor to experience it by having no one to love him. The monster also believes that Victor has acted with cowardice and selfishness, by running away and leaving the monster to a horrible fate. Even when the monster begs for a companion, Victor eventually rejects his offer and selfishly abandons him on his own, crushing his dream. The reader eventually gets to like the monster, as they start to feel sympathy for him, as he has nothing to hope for and no one to share his life with. Even after the monster attempts to learn English, which he thinks is a gift from gods, (from the quote Godlike Science)only two people experience his education fully, the blind De Lacy man and Victor. The monster is also quite secretly persuasive; he wishes for Victor to make another monster, he also attempts to make the reader feel sympathetic towards him with lines like Was I then a monster, from which all men fled? which make the reader wish they were in the story to help, which proves it is quite a strong type of sympathy. Shelley also uses the monster as a way of pointing out human flaws. She shows that no matter how different someone is, another person will always find faults or be intimidated by someone else. Frankenstein also has a subtitle; it is also named The Modern Prometheus. The classical story is about a human named Prometheus, who steals fire from the god Zeus to have an advantage over animals. This causes only pain and suffering for animals. In the modern Prometheus, Frankenstein is Prometheus as he defies the gods and takes their role as creator. As comeuppance, he is chained to a rock and his liver was eaten by an eagle every night, just to be healed at daybreak. This is a symbol for the ongoing pain of both Frankenstein and the monster. Even though, as the novel says, ambitions results in nothing other than pain, the advancement in modern medicine is an amazing feat. It has, meanwhile, sparked controversy, with subjects like stem cell research that could potentially be harming living organisms. The character that I favour most is the monster as he has been through nothing but pain throughout his entire life, whereas the other protagonists have been fed with a silver spoon. I think that the novel of the story is that if you are willing to put everything at risk to succeed, be prepared to fail.

Is The Second Sex Beauvoirs Application of Sartrean Existentialism? Es

Is The Second Sex Beauvoir's Application of Sartrean Existentialism? ABSTRACT: Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 feminist masterpiece, The Second Sex, has traditionally been read as an application of Sartrean existentialism to the problem of women. Critics have claimed a Sartrean origin for Beauvoir's central theses: that under patriarchy woman is the Other, and that 'one is not born a woman, but becomes one.' An analysis of Beauvoir's recently discovered 1927 diary, written while she was a philosophy student at the Sorbonne, two years before her first meeting with Sartre, challenges this interpretation. In this diary, Beauvoir affirms her commitment to doing philosophy, defines the philosophical problem of 'the opposition of self and other,' and explores the links between love and domination. In 1927, she thus lays the foundations of both Sartre's phenomenology of interpersonal relationships and of her own thesis, in The Second Sex, that woman is the Other. Her descriptions of the experience of freedom and choice point to the influence of Bergson, specifical ly his concepts of 'becoming' and à ©lan vital. Tracing Beauvoir's shift from her apolitical position of 1927 to the feminist engagement of The Second Sex points to the influence of the African-American writer, Richard Wright, whose description of the lived experience of oppression of blacks in America, and whose challenge to Marxist reductionism, provide Beauvoir with a model, an analogy, for analyzing woman's oppression. Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 feminist masterpiece, The Second Sex, has traditionally been read as Beauvoir's application of the existential philosophy of her companion, Jean-Paul Sartre, to the situation of women. Diane Raymond, in Existentialism and the Philoso... ...]. In The World of Richard Wright. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi. pp. 253-55. Fullbrook, Kate and Edward Fullbrook. 1994. Simone de Beauvoir; The Remaking of a Twentieth-Century Legend. New York: Basic Books. Kruks, Sonia. 1995. "Identity Politics and Dialectical Reason: Beyond an Epistemology of Provenance." Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy 10 (2): 1-22. Myrdal, Gunnar, et.al. 1944. An American Dilemma; The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York: Harper. Raymond, Diane. 1991. Existentialism and the Philosophical Tradition. Englewood Cliffs, Sartre, Jean-Paul. [1943] 1953. Being and Nothingness. Tr. H. Barnes. NY: Simon & Schuster. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Simons, Margaret A. 1983. "The Silencing of Simone de Beauvoir: Guess What's Missing from The Second Sex." Women's Studies International Forum 6 (5): 559-564.

Louisiana & The United States Essay

Louisiana is one of the United States of America states whose capital is located at Baton Rouge. The state is characterized by a rich unique multilingual and multicultural heritage. It is home for many ethnic groups. The Louisiana creoles people and the French speaking Cajuns are dominant in the southern Louisiana state and have distinct cultures. Blending of these cultures has resulted to Creole lifestyle immerging that has become deep rooted cultural, social, economic lifestyle of the Louisiana until the 20th century when it was overtaken by the Anglo Americans. Creole ancestors settled in Louisiana before 1803 when it was purchased from the Western Europe, and Senegal, they then settled in the State along the main water ways. Continuous blending of these disparate of France, Senegal and Germany led to emergence of the creed and this become a dominant social cultural and economic lifestyle till the 20th century (Carl Brasseaux, Keith Fontenot, Claude Oubre pp68-81). Acadians are the ancestors of Cajuns; the Acadians are French speaking people of Nova Scotia Canada and New Brunswick. After the Britain won the Indian and French war, the separated families and the Acadians were settled in camps in England colonies for 10-30 years and those who escaped settled French Canada, upon being freed they scattered in Canada Mexico, France with majority seeking refugees in South Louisiana. Cajun were considered as a lower class national as their name means but it was in 1970 when they disclosed their natural resources of gas and oil when their culture music, food and lifestyle was internationally recognized in . Creole is a term borrowed from Portuguese and Spanish by the French government. It means the native products and the colony’s people, whereas the meaning of Cajun is to subject to debate variant apathetic. The origin of Acadia is either Greek or India which means a camp set up in a good place. The Creole was an expression of colonial ghost in both the Spanish and French Regimes. The Creole then formed its own identity and they were normally referred to as the French creed. Colonial French was a language spoken by French Creole who were of white origin; a hybrid of French- West African language is usually spoken by the black creeds. It’s the hybrid language that is mostly spoken by the people of central Louisiana currently whereas the creed French is extent. The whites that are as a result of French – Spanish mixture were called French creed and the mixed up mulatto population was called creeds of color, African creed or black creed (Carl Brasseaux, Keith Fontenot, Claude Oubre pp 40-81). The Cajun have to date retained their unique dialect from the French language and assortment of other cultural characteristics that usually distinguish them from other ethnic group – unlike what its popularly believed by the Cajun communities, Cajuns did not solely descend from the Acadian exile but also descended from other numerous groups after intermarriage over several generations: the intermarriages with the Germans, Spanish, Native Americans, French creed and the Metis. The French creeds who were settled in the rural areas were absorbed by the Cajun have a very pure French dialect despite the influences from the Acadians. Unlike the French creoles, the Cajuns ancestors are not French origin but of Hispanic, German, Canary Islanders and Filipino settlers as a result of intermarriages The geographical location of the Cajun has a strong relation to the lifestyle of the Cajun people. Those who settle at Atchafalaya Basin, a long the Westland’s and Bayous adapted a water based lifestyle. This water based lifestyle included their economic life of trapping, hunting and fishing, the Cajuns who settled southwest Louisiana prairies adapted a land-based lifestyle, that included farming sugar cane and rice, cattle rearing among other agricultural practices. Many creoles and Cajuns migrated and settled part Arthur and Beaumont seeking oil related jobs since oil drilling become a major economic activity in the 19970 – 1980. The Cajun music originated from French speaking people that were Catholics of Canada. Fiddle was the most dominant instrument in the earlier years but with time, the Acadian has also become popular, Jazz is a popular music of the Blade Creole that has been popularized in the 20th century. Both the Cajuns and the Creole sing the zydeco music, but initially it was only sang in the Cajun French, but the blade creoles added some linguistic elements to the zydeco music. Nowadays, the zydeco music is sung in Cajun French or English and a few done in black Creole. The zydeco is closely related to American blues, Cajun music jazz and the swamp music and the most common zydeco music instrument is the frottoir just like the Catholic Church but nowadays they have joined other religious sects. The culture of these two ethnic groups was deep rooted in their community catholic and cuisine, they observed many catholic practices like the lent, holy week and the merdi gras (fat Tuesday). The Creole identity has been ignored since late 1960 by both the non creoles and creoles themselves after the emergence of the Cajun pride and the Louisiana French development council conception. Since then you can travel to New Orleans, the original birth place of creoles languages and identity of the west of Mississippi river where creoles families reside and find them referring themselves as Cajuns. Cajuns movements have divided Louisiana into Cajun French Creole and black Creole, but it’s however noted that Cajun initially referred to a separate subset of the Louisiana francophone. The colonial French and the Louisiana French are no longer fluently spoken by most creoles and this had catalyzed the neglecting of the Creole people. The creoles identify is a race versus culture but not recognized nowadays. The creoles of Louisiana are recognized people having the following mixes, Spanish, French, Africans and American ancestry and Creole is accepted as a big culture group that share Spanish and French ancestry (Ira Berlin PP 290-325). The cuisine is a unique cooking style that originated from new Orleans and adapted by both the creoles and the Cajun but its greatly influenced by the Americans, French Caribbean and the African Gumbo is traditionally a Creole dish which is of the features of the cuisine, other features of the cuisine include the jambalaya all these dishes are commonly prepared by both the creoles and the Cajuns. Despite efforts to have one national language in Louisiana, the francophone Louisianans have pressured the need to maintain their language. This led to the Cajun movement that pioneered the establishment of the council for development for the French in Louisiana. This council initially was advocating for the use of standard French in Louisiana but the pressure and protests by the Creole community and the Cajun community has forced the adoption of all varieties of French that includes the creoles and the Cajuns in Louisiana. This has had good fruits since it seen as a way of incorporating Francophone Louisiana with the other francophone world. Although the Cajuns were discriminated in the earlier times, the French Revival Movement has convinced the Cajuns to be proud of them selves, further more, the Cajun French is being taught in the public schools. Due to social factors that have led to the creoles French loosing their identity, the Cajun French has become more politically powerful than the Creole French currently. The Cajun French are becoming more dominant as the Creole French become extinct. Currently it’s only the black Creole who identifies themselves as the Creole people and there are very few Creole speaking people below the age of six years. As the Louisiana Creole are languishing, three movements, the Un Cajun Committee, the southern heritage supporting creoles and the C. R. E. O. L. E INC. these movement have accused the French movement with the intention of making the Creole extinct and there the few Creole have identified themselves with a unique culture meant to be preserved. Initially it’s the French Cajuns who were marginalized but today it’s the opposite as it’s the French Creole who are faced with the problem of racial and linguistic marginalization. REFERENCES Ira Berlin (2000) Many Thousands Gone, Harvard University Press, Harvard Carl Brasseaux, Keith Fontenot, Claude Oubre (1996) Creoles of color in the Bayou Country, University of Mississippi press, Mississippi Shane K. Bernard (2003) the Cajuns, University of Mississippi press, Mississippi

Mexican Immigrant Life and Americanization in the 1920’s Essay

In his book, Major Problems in Mexican American History, Zaragosa Vargas describes the Mexican Immigrant experience from 1917-1928. He begins by assessing the Protestant religious experience for a Mexican in the early 1920’s, and then describes Mexican life in both Colorado in 1924 and Chicago in 1928. After defending Mexican Immigrants in 1929, he includes an outline of an Americanization program, followed by an anecdote of a Mexican immigrant in the 1920’s. Vargas uses these documents to show the evolvement of Americanization of Mexicans from a community goal to a societal demand. Vargas begins with the Mexican Immigrant experience in the early 1920’s, and describes it mostly as a community project spearheaded by the Church and called for the aid of volunteers. The children learned and studied English in school, so the programs focused mostly on courses in English for the wives and mothers of the community. These English courses consisted mostly of vocabulary for familiar and most frequently seen objects. Sunday schools resulted from this process, and in turn made way for the development of night schools, clinics, an employment bureau, and a boys and girl’s club. In Colorado in 1924, Mexicans played a respectable role in society as not only a decent part of the population, but also the labor force. Spanish-Americans took a notable part in politics, and were involved in many occupations that included mostly agriculture, mining, and steel works. The recreation was also important to Spanish-American life in Colorado; the somewhat newly developed buildings were a source of community for many. Mexicans in Chicago in 1928, Vargas argues, lived a very different lifestyle and endured different hardships than the Mexicans in the Southwest. They were a much smaller part of the community, consisting of small, well-defined neighborhoods and several smaller less defined colonies. These Mexicans lived in the poorest houses in these neighborhoods, and most buildings guaranteed poor living conditions for these families. Employment only came certain times during the year when demand for labor was high, and it was the Mexicans who suffered most when certain industries reduced labor. In the words of Anita Edgar Jones, â€Å"They are the last to arrive and the first to be laid off† (Vargas). Mexican Life in Chicago during this time period served as a temporary solution for many families as they moved from recent arrivals to a more desirable place with better opportunity as they became more established and stabilized. Some neighborhoods were poorly organized for recreation, and even lacked Spanish-speaking employees at their community or recreation centers. Communities also lacked a Spanish-speaking priest, which is evidently different from early Americanization programs implemented in the Southwest in the early 1920’s. After addressing and defending most of the problems of Mexican Immigration in 1929, Vargas moves on to an outline of a typical Americanization program in 1931, where the Mexican Immigrant experience evolved from a community project that supported and encouraged Mexican assimilation, to a list of demands and requirements for Mexican and Spanish Americans to be acceptable members of society. Vargas uses these documents to show the progression of assimilation of Spanish Americans and Mexican immigrants into American society in the 1920’s. The life of a Mexican Immigrant during this time was very taxing, and these Americanization programs were used as a tool to attempt to create a society that operated under certain ideologies and values. As a result, this created an even stronger division between cultures, and prevented assimilation of the two groups. Work Cited Vargas, Zaragoza. â€Å"The Mexican Immigrant Experience 1917-1928. † Major Problems in Mexican American History. Thomas G. Patterson. Houghton Mifflin Company 1999. 234-53.

How to Make a DNA Model Using Candy

How to Make a DNA Model Using Candy Making DNA models can be informative, fun, and in this case tasty. Here you will learn how to construct a DNA model using candy. But first, what is DNA? DNA, like RNA, is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for the reproduction of life.  DNA is coiled into chromosomes and tightly packed in the nucleus of our cells. Its shape is that of a double helix and its appearance is somewhat of a twisted ladder or spiral staircase. DNA is composed of nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine), a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate molecule. The deoxyribose and phosphate molecules form the sides of the ladder, while the nitrogenous bases form the steps. What You Need: You can make this candy DNA model with just a few simple ingredients. Red and black licorice sticksColored marshmallows or gummy bearsToothpicksNeedleStringScissors Heres How: Gather together red and black licorice sticks, colored marshmallows or gummy bears, toothpicks, needle, string, and scissors.Assign names to the colored marshmallows or gummie bears to represent nucleotide bases. There should be four different colors each representing either adenine, cytosine, guanine or thymine.Assign names to the colored licorice pieces with one color representing the pentose sugar molecule and the other representing the phosphate molecule.Use the scissors to cut the licorice into 1 inch pieces.Using the needle, string half of the licorice pieces together lengthwise alternating between the black and red pieces.Repeat the procedure for the remaining licorice pieces to create a total of two stands of equal length.Connect two different colored marshmallows or gummy bears together using the toothpicks.Connect the toothpicks with the candy to either the red licorice segments only or the black licorice segments only, so that the candy pieces are between the two strands.H olding the ends of the licorice sticks, twist the structure slightly. Tips: When connecting the base pairs be sure to connect the ones that pair naturally in DNA. For example, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.When connecting the candy base pairs to the licorice, the base pairs should be connected to the licorice pieces that represent the pentose sugar molecules. More Fun With DNA The great thing about making DNA models is that you can use almost any type of material. This includes candy, paper, and even jewelry. You might also be interested in learning how to extract DNA from organic sources. In How to Extract DNA From a Banana, you will discover the four basic steps of DNA extraction. DNA Processes DNA replication - DNA unwinds in order that copies can be made for mitosis and meiosis. DNA transcription - DNA is transcribed into an RNA message for protein synthesis. DNA translation - The transcribed RNA message is translated to produce proteins. DNA Mutations - Changes in DNA sequences are known as mutations. Mutations can impact specific genes or entire chromosomes.

Biography of Galileo Galilei, Renaissance Philosopher

Biography of Galileo Galilei, Renaissance Philosopher Galileo Galilei (February 15, 1564–January 8, 1642) was a famous inventor, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher, whose inventive mind and stubborn nature ran him into trouble with the Inquisition. Fast Facts: Galileo Galilei Known For: Italian Renaissance philosopher, inventor, and polymath who faced the wrath of the Inquisition for his astronomical studies.  Born: February 15, 1564, Pisa, Italy.Parents: Vincenzo and Giulia Ammannati Galilei (m. July 5, 1562)Died: January 8, 1642, Arcetri, Italy.Education: Privately tutored; Jesuit monastery, University of Pisa.Published Works: The Starry Messenger.  Spouse: Marina Gamba (mistress 1600-1610).Children: by Marina: Virginia (1600), Livia Antonia (1601), Vincenzo (1606). Early Life Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy on February 15, 1564, the oldest of seven children of Giulia Ammannati and Vincenzo Galilei. His father (c. 1525–1591) was a gifted lute musician and wool trader, who wanted his son to study medicine as there was more money in medicine. Vincenzo was attached to the court, and was often traveling. The family was originally named Bonaiuti, but they had an illustrious ancestor named Galileo Bonaiuti  (1370–1450) who was a physician and public officer in Pisa. One branch of the family broke off and began calling itself Galilei (of Galileo), and so Galileo Galilei was doubly named after him. As a child, Galileo made mechanical models of ships and watermills, learned to play the lute to a professional standard, and showed an aptitude for painting and drawing. Originally tutored by a man named Jacopo Borghini, Galileo was sent to the Camaldlese monastery at Vallambroso to study grammar, logic, and rhetoric. He found the contemplative life to his liking and after four years joined the community as a novice. This was not exactly what father had in mind, so Galileo was hastily withdrawn from the monastery. In 1581, at the age of 17, he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine, as his father wished. The University of Pisa At age twenty, Galileo noticed a lamp swinging overhead while he was in a cathedral. Curious to find out how long it took the lamp to swing back and forth, he used his pulse to time large and small swings. Galileo discovered something that no one else had ever realized: the period of each swing was exactly the same. The law of the pendulum, which would eventually be used to regulate clocks, made Galileo Galilei instantly famous. Except for mathematics, Galileo was soon bored with the university and the study of medicine. Uninvited, he attended the lecture of court mathematician Ostilio Ricci- Ricci had been assigned by the Duke of Tuscany to teach the court attendants in math, and Galileo was not one of those. Galileo followed up the lecture by reading Euclid on his own; he sent a set of questions to Ricci, the content of which impressed the scholar greatly. Galileos family considered his mathematical studies subsidiary to medicine, but when Vincenzo was informed that their son was in danger of flunking out, he worked out a compromise so that Galileo could be tutoredin mathematics by Ricci full-time Galileos father was hardly overjoyed about this turn of events, since a mathematicians earning power was roughly around that of a musician, but it seemed that this might yet allow Galileo to successfully complete his college education. The compromise didnt work out, for Galileo soon left the University of Pisa without a degree. Becoming a Mathematician After he flunked out, to earn a living, Galileo started tutoring students in mathematics. He did some experimenting with floating objects, developing a balance that could tell him that a piece of, say, gold was 19.3 times heavier than the same volume of water. He also started campaigning for his lifes ambition: a position on the mathematics faculty at a major university. Although Galileo was clearly brilliant, he had offended many people in the field, who would choose other candidates for vacancies. Ironically, it was a lecture on literature that would turn Galileos fortunes. The Academy of Florence had been arguing over a 100-year-old controversy: What were the location, shape, and dimensions of Dantes Inferno? Galileo wanted to seriously answer the question from the point of view of a scientist. Extrapolating from Dantes line that [the giant Nimrods] face was about as long/And just as wide as St. Peters cone in Rome, Galileo deduced that Lucifer himself was 2,000 arm-lengths long. The audience was impressed, and within the year, Galileo had received a three-year appointment to the University of Pisa, the same university that never granted him a degree. The Leaning Tower of Pisa At the time that Galileo arrived at the University, some debate had started up on one of Aristotles laws of nature, that heavier objects fell faster than lighter objects. Aristotles word had been accepted as gospel truth, and there had been few attempts to actually test Aristotles conclusions by actually conducting an experiment. According to legend, Galileo decided to try. He needed to be able to drop the objects from a great height. The perfect building was right at hand - the Tower of Pisa, 54 meters (177 feet) tall. Galileo climbed up to the top of the building carrying a variety of balls of varying size and weight  and dumped them off of the top. They all landed at the base of the building at the same time (legend says that the demonstration was witnessed by a huge crowd of students and professors). Aristotle was wrong. It might have helped the junior member of the faculty if Galileo had not continued to behave rudely to his colleagues. Men are like wine flasks, he once said to a group of students, †¦look at†¦bottles with the handsome labels. When you taste them, they are full of air or perfume or rouge. These are bottles fit only to pee into! Perhaps not surprisingly, the University of Pisa chose not to renew Galileos contract. The University of Padua Galileo Galilei moved on to the University of Padua. By 1593, he was desperate in need of additional cash. His father had died, so Galileo was now head of his family, and personally responsible for his family. Debts were pressing down on him, most notably, the dowry for one of his sisters, which was to be paid in installments over decades- a dowry could be thousands of crowns, and Galileos annual salary was 180 crowns). Debtors prison was a real threat if Galileo returned to Florence. What Galileo needed was to come up with some sort of device that could make him a tidy profit. A rudimentary thermometer (which, for the first time, allowed temperature variations to be measured) and an ingenious device to raise water from aquifers found no market. He found greater success in 1596 with a military compass that could be used to accurately aim cannonballs. A modified civilian version that could be used for land surveying came out in 1597 and ended up earning a fair amount of money for Galileo. It helped his profit margin that 1) the instruments were sold for three times the cost of manufacture, 2) he also offered classes on how to use the instrument, and 3) the actual toolmaker was paid dirt-poor wages. A good thing. Galileo needed the money to support his siblings, his mistress (a 21-year-old Marina Gamba who had a reputation as a woman of easy habits), and his three children (two daughters and a boy). By 1602, Galileos name was famous enough to help bring in students to the University, where Galileo was busily experimenting with magnets. Building a Spyglass (Telescope) In Venice on a holiday in 1609, Galileo Galilei heard rumors that a Dutch spectacle-maker had invented a device that made distant objects seem near at hand (at first called the spyglass and later  renamed the  telescope). A patent had been requested, but not yet granted, and the methods were being kept secret, since it was obviously of tremendous military value for Holland. Galileo Galilei was determined to attempt to construct his own spyglass. After a frantic 24 hours of experimentation, working only on instinct and bits of rumors, never having actually *seen* the Dutch spyglass, he built a 3-power telescope. After some refinement, he brought a 10-power telescope to Venice and demonstrated it to a highly impressed Senate. His salary was promptly raised, and he was honored with proclamations. Galileos Observations of the Moon If he had stopped here, and become a man of wealth and leisure, Galileo Galilei might be a mere footnote in history. Instead, a revolution started when, one fall evening, the scientist trained his telescope on an object in the sky that all people at that time believed must be a perfect, smooth, polished heavenly body- the Moon. To his astonishment, Galileo Galilei viewed a surface that was uneven, rough, and full of cavities and prominences. Many people insisted that Galileo Galilei was wrong, including a mathematician who insisted that even if Galileo was seeing a rough surface on the Moon, that only meant that the entire moon had to be covered in invisible, transparent, smooth crystal. Discovery of Jupiters Satellites Months passed, and his telescopes improved. On January 7, 1610, he turned his 30 power telescope towards Jupiter, and found three small, bright stars near the planet. One was off to the west, the other two were to the east, all three in a straight line. The following evening, Galileo once again took a look at Jupiter, and found that all three of the stars were now west of the planet, still in a straight line. Observations over the following weeks led Galileo to the inescapable conclusion that these small stars were actually small satellites that were rotating about Jupiter. If there were satellites that didnt move around the Earth, wasnt it possible that the Earth was not the center of the universe? Couldnt the  Copernican  idea of the Sun at the center of the solar system be correct? Galileo Galilei published his findings, as a small book titled The Starry Messenger. A total of 550 copies were published in March of 1610, to tremendous public acclaim and excitement. It was the only one of Galileos writings in Latin; most of his work was published in Tuscan. Seeing Saturns Rings And there were more discoveries via the new telescope: the appearance of bumps next to the planet Saturn (Galileo thought they were companion stars; the stars were actually the edges of Saturns rings), spots on the Suns surface (though others had actually seen the spots before), and seeing Venus change from a full disk to a sliver of light. For Galileo Galilei, saying that the Earth went around the Sun changed everything since he was contradicting the teachings of the Church. While some of the Churchs mathematicians wrote that his observations were clearly correct, many members of the Church believed that he must be wrong. In December of 1613, one of the scientists friends told him how a powerful member of the nobility said that she could not see how his observations could be true, since they would contradict the Bible. The lady quoted a passage in Joshua where God causes the Sun to stand still and lengthen the day. How could this mean anything other than that the Sun went around the Earth? Charged with Heresy Galileo was a religious man, and he agreed that the Bible could never be wrong. However, he said, the interpreters of the Bible could make mistakes, and it was a mistake to assume that the Bible had to be taken literally. That was one of Galileos major mistakes. At that time, only Church priests were allowed to interpret the Bible, or to define Gods intentions. It was absolutely unthinkable for a mere member of the public to do so. Some of the Church clergy started responding, accusing him of heresy. Some clerics went to the Inquisition, the Church court that investigated charges of heresy, and formally accused Galileo Galilei. This was a very serious matter. In 1600, a man named Giordano Bruno was convicted of being a heretic for believing that the earth moved about the Sun, and that there were many planets throughout the universe where life- living creations of God- existed. Bruno was burnt to death. However, Galileo was found innocent of all charges, and cautioned not to teach the Copernican system. Sixteen years later, all that would change. The Final Trial The following years saw Galileo move on to work on other projects. With his telescope he watched the movements of Jupiters moons, recorded them as a list, and then came up with a way to use these measurements as a navigation tool. He developed a contraption that would allow a ship captain to navigate with his hands on the wheel, but the contraption looked like a horned helmet. As another amusement, Galileo started writing about ocean tides. Instead of writing his arguments as a scientific paper, he found that it was much more interesting to have an imaginary conversation, or dialogue, between three fictional characters. One character, who would support Galileos side of the argument, was brilliant. Another character would be open to either side of the argument. The final character, named Simplicio, was dogmatic and foolish, representing all of Galileos enemies who ignored any evidence that Galileo was right. Soon, he wrote up a similar dialogue called Dialogue on the Two Great Systems of the World. This book talked about the Copernican system. Inquisition and Death Dialogue was an immediate hit with the public, but not, of course, with the Church. The pope suspected that he was the model for Simplicio. He ordered the book banned, and also ordered the scientist to appear before the Inquisition in Rome for the crime of teaching the Copernican theory after being ordered not to do so. Galileo Galilei was 68 years old and sick. Threatened with torture, he publicly confessed that he had been wrong to have said that the Earth moves around the Sun. Legend then has it that after his confession, Galileo quietly whispered And yet, it moves. Unlike many less famous prisoners, he was allowed to live under house arrest in his house outside of Florence and near one of his daughters, a nun. Until his death in 1642, he continued to investigate other areas of science. Amazingly, he even published a book on force and motion although he had been blinded by an eye infection. The Vatican Pardons Galileo in 1992 The Church eventually lifted the ban on Galileos Dialogue in 1822- by that time, it was common knowledge that the Earth was not the center of the Universe. Still later, there were statements by the Vatican Council in the early 1960s and in 1979 that implied that Galileo was pardoned, and that he had suffered at the hands of the Church. Finally, in 1992, three years after Galileo Galileis namesake had been launched on its way to Jupiter, the Vatican formally and publicly cleared Galileo of any wrongdoing. Sources Drake, Stillman. Galileo at Work: His Scientific Biography. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications Inc., 2003.Reston, Jr., James. Galileo: A Life. Washington DC: BeardBooks, 2000.  Van Helden, Albert. Galileo: Italian Philosopher, Astronomer and Mathematician. Encyclopedia Britannica, February 11, 2019.Wootton, David. Galileo: Watcher of the Skies. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2010.

Edgar allan poe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Edgar allan poe - Essay Example Poe’s personal tragedies played a huge role in the shaping of his poems, as did his abuse of alcohol and opium that increased throughout his lifetime. After the death of his mother, Poe became afraid of cemeteries, worried that ghosts or bodies would come out of their graves and come after him (Symons, pg. 27). Though it was not nearly as noticeable as it would be in years to come, Poe’s writing during this time gradually turned darker. He started focusing more on life and death, implementing sorrow and death into his poems. The poems during this era are no longer in print, but they were the onset of the writing that Poe’s fans would come to recognize and associate with Poe. The first poem that was first correlated with the death of someone close to Poe was â€Å"The Raven,† which was written after Poe’s brother had died from tuberculosis. The poem is a sorrowful one, centered on the never-ending remembrances of lost loved ones. The poem is about a woman named Lenore, and the protagonist of the poem spends the majority of the poem talking to the raven that has come into his home. At first the man is unaware of what has entered his house, but he speaks to it anyway, too lost in his thoughts of his Lenore. He wants to believe that what is in his home is her. The speaker becomes so lost to the point that he drives himself insane. The poem reflects the emotions that Poe felt after his brother died. He and his brother had never been close, a fact that disturbed Poe after his brother died. â€Å"The Raven† speaks of constantly remembering someone after they have gone, so much that the deceased person becomes real, yet not real enough to touch or see. The speaker spent the length of the poem hoping that the thing in his house was who he missed the most, but he drove himself insane with these hopes. The same can be said for Poe himself. He spent so much time thinking about the

Critically evaluate the view that Changing Organisational Culture is Essay

Critically evaluate the view that Changing Organisational Culture is difficult if not impossible and requires a different approach to other types of change initiatives - Essay Example In-depth study of culture change in the corporate and organisational literature reveals it to be centered on human relations management for higher productivity. Edgar Schein (1985) believes that culture is seen as a "hot topic" within the corporate world because it is perceived that organisations can be more effective if they develop the right type of culture. Some may believe that it is possible to change dysfunctional cultures to those that are better adapted to their environments. However, according to Schein, culture is hard to define and even harder to measure, harder still to determine the effects on the corporate world. Organisational cultural change is difficult because it is difficult to assess or measure culture. Schein (1985) three level model appears to provide a meaningful option that is useful for assessing organisational culture. In the model, artifacts are placed at the highest level of the structure. The next level represents values which reflect goals and ideals of the organisation; they are the why behind what people within the organisation do. Finally, at the lowest level of Scheins model we find assumptions. The innermost core of culture, assumptions represent rarely spoken, latent, core beliefs and are therefore the most difficult to assess. It is possible for the three levels of culture to be incongruent. For instance, a company may have an open door policy (artifact) and express a value that everyones opinion is appreciated and sought, but below the surface is the knowledge that the boss is really the only one with whom to share the important information (assumption). Leaders of organisations and the consultants who work with them have learned a lot about behaviour change which is seen at the most superficial level of artifacts but not much about how to create organisational belief and value change. Behaviour change

Explain the difference between a security vulnerability and an exploit Essay

Explain the difference between a security vulnerability and an exploit - Essay Example Exploits encompass a large range of possible attacks, from HTTP domains designed to remove data or imbed malware on Web servers, to bumper overflow assaults that can cause targeted systems to run random software (Secpoint, 2012). An exploit is a way of stage-managing the vulnerability, in addition to using it to manipulate a system or network. Simply because something has been recognized as a vulnerability does not imply that it has been used to control a system. The incidence of the exploit denotes someone has effectively used that weakness and taken advantage of it. A vulnerability is a fault or flaw found in software and operating systems that hazards try to exploit. Threats are malevolent files or programs that assault a functions or operating systems vulnerability to enter a computer. A vulnerability is basically a weakness, found in a program. Threats occur in many shapes, depending on their approach of attack. From bugs to Trojans, spyware along with bots, threats have developed into complex programs meant to damage computer. Whenever an invader recognizes a security vulnerability in a software program like a firewall system, a DNS server, a web server, a ftp server, a mail server, or other appliances the goal is typically to obtain leveraged admission into the intended system. There are many kinds of security faults. Normally, overflow vulnerabilities control the software appliance to do something that it is not destined to. So as to exploit these weaknesses to gain leveraged rights on the target appliances, a hacker requires writing a portion of source code referred to as â€Å"an exploit†. This will exploit of the recognized security vulnerability and push the software to the edge, breaking it and, in the course of breaking, achieving leveraged entry to the target appliance with the identical privileges as the given curriculum that is being assaulted. Vulnerability-centered detection appliances are markedly higher to previous exploit-centered

Ethnic inequalities in the workplace

Ethnic inequalities in the workplace 3. Why, despite Race Discrimination, legislation do ethnic inequalities in the workplace persist? There are a large number of problems including discrimination, human capital and social isolation that mean that ethnic inequalities in the workplace continue. Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Black Caribbeans suffer the most discrimination, have the least human capital and are most prone to social isolation. This can be seen in that these ethnic groups have the greatest unemployment rates and lowest incomes. Meanwhile the Chinese and Indians do better for themselves in comparison, however are still not on the same levels at Whites in Britain. Since the 1970s Black Caribbeans, Bangladeshis and Pakistanis have continued to have double the unemployed rates that whites do. This is shown in the fact that on average Black Caribbeans earn around 15% less than whites (Hall Carter, 2006). Meanwhile increasingly Indians and Chinese have managed to gain more or less the same levels of works at whites in Britain. Further more Indians, Chinese and Pakistanis have continued to have higher rates of s elf employment than whites or Black Caribbeans since the 1960s, meaning Black Caribbeans do the worst in employment (Clark Drinkwater, 1998). However there is some evidence to suggest the situation is improving in the workplace that will be explored nearer the end of the essay. Discrimination, whether it be conscious or subconscious, is seen as a major factor in ethnic inequalities in the workplace in Britain. The general definition of discrimination is that it is prejudice treatment of a person based on their membership of a group. Often this discrimination is against a religious group or race, even simply due to skin color. A vast amount of research suggests that discrimination against ethnic minorities continues to be a problem when it comes to employers hiring. (Deitch, Barsky, Butz, Chan, Brief Bradley, 2003). Further studies also suggest that prejudice against ethnic minorities has remained at a constant level over the past 40 years (Li Heath, 2008). It is defiantly a valid point that different ethnic minorities experience different levels of discrimination by whites within Britain. Research shows that the British population overall believe there to be similar levels of prejudice against Blacks and as there are with Pakistanis (Verkuyten Brug, 2002 ). There is a common underlying prejudice view with some employers that these ethnics groups are most prone to laziness and crime. The view that racial discrimination is greater in manual labour such as building than it is in the non-manual labour such as office work is certainly a valid one, as it can be argued there are more social boundaries with an office environment than on a building site (Fraser, 2009). The higher an individual goes in the workplace hierarchy, the greater the rules and regulations set in place that prevents discrimination within that environment. Hence this means discrimination is likely to be greatest at the lower end of the manual labour hierarchy. It is fair to say Black Caribbeans and Pakistanis are more likely to be discriminated against than Indians and Chinese as there is a clear education gap between them. Unfortunately due to the similarity in looks between Pakistanis and Indian they may well suffer equal discrimination. Black Caribbeans in particula r will feel obliged to apply for lower pay jobs (Verkuyten Brug, 2002). It is hence easy to see how once you are bracketed into a certain ethnic group, depending on which group that is, an individual is either in a cycle of advantage or disadvantage. Whites would on average be considered to be in a cycle of advantage with regards to ethnicity and work in Britain. The idea of human capital adds to the problem of ethnic inequality in the workplace. An employer will seek to asses how strong or weak an applicants human capital is (their value as worker). For example if you are a graduate from university experience you are far more likely to be employed than someone who dropped out of school at the age of 16. Ethnic discrimination in human capital can be seen clearly in that if a white individual has the same qualification as an individual from an ethnic minority, the white individual is more likely to get the job. This is a sad but true fact, although one would like to think it is becoming less common in this current age. However, ethnic groups are not discriminated against to the same degree as one another, with Indians and Chinese often coming close or surpassing whites in their human capitol. This is due to ethnic groups differing levels of human capital, subsequently created by differing education levels. On average Indians and Chinese have h igher educational levels than Black Caribbeans, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis (Ratcliffe, 2004). This would help explain the pay gaps between the ethnic groups, with Indians and Chinese on average earning more than other ethnic minorities (through better jobs due to their better standard of education). Language is another vital part of human capital. In the first generation of migrants, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis in particular lacked the English language one needs to work. This is less of an issue now, but unfortunately these prejudices carry on into the second generation. Education levels and language skills are therefore crucial to judging an individuals human capital. Unfortunately due to conscious or subconscious discrimination of an employer being white is often an addition to an individuals human capital while often being a member of an ethnic group is seen as a subtraction to human capital. Another reason for ethnic inequality within the workplace is social isolation. This is relevant in particular among Pakistanis and Bangladeshis, as they are the most socially isolated of all the ethnic groups within Britain (Ratcliffe, 2004). Compared to other ethnic groups, in particular whites, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis lack the bridging social skills that are needed to gain work contacts within a predominantly white British society, which is almost essential to finding the jobs. Their social isolation may continue with their lack of good education and English language, which is again essential to networking for jobs. Further more ethnic minorities are often highly concentrated in certain urban areas, with Bangladeshis and Pakistanis having the highest level of geographical segregation from the white population (Solomon, 2003). Due to this they are less likely to mix with the white population of Britain, and therefore less likely to network for jobs. As a result there are very fe w examples of Pakistanis or Bangladeshis marrying into white families. Again, location is essential as to rates of pay or qualities of jobs. The first generation of migrants arrived in Britain with little knowledge and little money, hence they moved into lower class and lower income areas of cities. This is where cycles of advantage and disadvantage are relevant once more. Ethnic groups who live in areas of deprivation are in cycles of disadvantage. Classic examples include areas of Slough, East London and Bradford. Areas of deprivation will entail a poor quality education and poor job opportunities and therefore will in turn create individuals of poor human capital that are likely to be discriminated against due to their geographical location and prejudice opinions that come with living in that area. On top of this, if an individual is of an ethnic minority there is even more discrimination likely to be consciously or subconsciously directed their way. Due to this, an area may beco me less desirable, and therefore only attract more migrants or unemployed due to the cheap standard of living, adding further to the problems of the area. While there is overwhelming evidence to suggest ethnic inequalities within the workplace persist, there is some evidence of the situation improving. Overall racial discrimination is becoming less common due to new rules and regulations, as well as it being frowned upon to the highest degree. In particular, Black Caribbean individuals are marrying white individuals hence bridging the gap between ethnic groups and creating more networking for employment (Hall Carter, 2006). The second generation of migrants are generally doing better with jobs than the first generation due to their greater integration into the education system and greater use of the English language. In particular Indians and Chinese are acceleration in the economy, gaining high earning jobs in law or medicine. In conclusion, there are a large number of problems including discrimination, human capital and social isolation that mean that ethnic inequalities in the workplace persist. Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Black Caribbeans suffer the most inequality in the workplace, while the Chinese and Indians do better for themselves in comparison, however are still not on the same levels at whites in Britain On average the whites in Britain do better overall in the workplace than the other ethnic groups due to the above problems. Having said this, the second generation of migrants have done better in the workplace than the first generation of migrants.

Commanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History Essay

Commanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History Machiavelli opens his Discourses on Livy by declaring that what will follow will be entirely revolutionary—â€Å"a path yet untrodden by anyone†Ã¢â‚¬â€but then quickly backs down from such assertions, shifting his focus away from his own efforts to the modern views of the ancients, and leaving the nature of this revolutionary undertaking ambiguous (Discourses, 5) . Indeed, the purpose of the whole work is repeatedly skirted in the preface. Machiavelli instead focuses on the distinction between the moderns and the ancients, mourning the superficial modern adoption of ancient ideas in art and law that lacks a deeper understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of ancient thought. He leaves us with only a vague description of his purpose in writing the Discourses—â€Å"so that those who read these statements of mine can more easily draw from them that utility for which one should seek knowledge of histories† (Discourses, 6). What the specific utility of history is, however, and what is so novel about his treatment of it, Machiavelli does not say. However, within the preface, and throughout his subsequent treatment of the idea of history in both the Discourses and The Prince, it becomes clear that he is indeed arguing something revolutionary through his use of history as a guide for politics. He chastises the moderns for â€Å"judging that imitation is not only difficult but impossible—as if heaven, sun, elements, men had varied in motion, order, and power from what they were in antiquity,† that is, for being deceived by Christianity into believing that its inception had fundamentally altered the nature of the world, and that a distinction between the ancients and the moderns is anything... ...lf than of the prince he has been hired to serve, meaning that, because Machiavelli also believes in a human nature that is at its foundation, deeply self-serving, a monarch can have no true advisors and is doomed to failure (Prince, 93). In a republic, however, men like Machiavelli are free to look out for their own good while charting a course for the state, as both goods are aligned (Discourses, 130). While the prince of a republic may himself only possess the second kind of mind and be unable by his nature to come to such a broad understanding of history and the causality of human events that Machiavelli has, it is enough that he has among his advisors such men as Machiavelli. Thus, ultimately, Machiavelli’s â€Å"yet untrodden path† turns out to be the creation of a method for government that is premised on the ability to master every kind of manifestation of fortune. Commanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History Essay Commanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History Machiavelli opens his Discourses on Livy by declaring that what will follow will be entirely revolutionary—â€Å"a path yet untrodden by anyone†Ã¢â‚¬â€but then quickly backs down from such assertions, shifting his focus away from his own efforts to the modern views of the ancients, and leaving the nature of this revolutionary undertaking ambiguous (Discourses, 5) . Indeed, the purpose of the whole work is repeatedly skirted in the preface. Machiavelli instead focuses on the distinction between the moderns and the ancients, mourning the superficial modern adoption of ancient ideas in art and law that lacks a deeper understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of ancient thought. He leaves us with only a vague description of his purpose in writing the Discourses—â€Å"so that those who read these statements of mine can more easily draw from them that utility for which one should seek knowledge of histories† (Discourses, 6). What the specific utility of history is, however, and what is so novel about his treatment of it, Machiavelli does not say. However, within the preface, and throughout his subsequent treatment of the idea of history in both the Discourses and The Prince, it becomes clear that he is indeed arguing something revolutionary through his use of history as a guide for politics. He chastises the moderns for â€Å"judging that imitation is not only difficult but impossible—as if heaven, sun, elements, men had varied in motion, order, and power from what they were in antiquity,† that is, for being deceived by Christianity into believing that its inception had fundamentally altered the nature of the world, and that a distinction between the ancients and the moderns is anything... ...lf than of the prince he has been hired to serve, meaning that, because Machiavelli also believes in a human nature that is at its foundation, deeply self-serving, a monarch can have no true advisors and is doomed to failure (Prince, 93). In a republic, however, men like Machiavelli are free to look out for their own good while charting a course for the state, as both goods are aligned (Discourses, 130). While the prince of a republic may himself only possess the second kind of mind and be unable by his nature to come to such a broad understanding of history and the causality of human events that Machiavelli has, it is enough that he has among his advisors such men as Machiavelli. Thus, ultimately, Machiavelli’s â€Å"yet untrodden path† turns out to be the creation of a method for government that is premised on the ability to master every kind of manifestation of fortune.

Persuasive Essay on why cancer is preventable Essay

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States. This year, over 1.2 million Americans will be diagnosed with cancer and about 560,000 will die from it. The rates have doubled in less than forty years. In my opinion, cancer is totally preventable. This may be a drastic statement but I believe the facts will prove it is true. In 1952, Dr. Ernest Krebs proposed a theory that cancer was a deficiency disease, similar to scurvy. His theory was that the cause of the disease was the lack of an essential vitamin in a person’s diet. He identified it as vitamin B17, a part of the nitriloside family which is found in over 1200 edible plants. It is found in the seeds of apricot, cherry, nectarine, peach, apples and others. To prove a theory it must be tested scientifically. The best way for Dr. Krebs to prove his theory would be for thousands of people to eat a diet very high in vitamin B17 and then check the results. This would have been very expensive but, fortunately, the experiment wasn’t necessary because it had already been done naturally. Between West Pakistan, India and China is the remote valley of Hunza. The people of Hunza have 200 times more B17 in their diet than the average American. In fact, in a place where there is no money, wealth is measured by how many apricot trees a man has. Medical teams who have traveled to Hunza discovered that there has never been a case of cancer. The average age of the Hunza people is about 85, but many live to be 100 years or older. Eskimos are another group of cancer-free people that have been observed for several decades. The traditional Eskimo diet is very rich in nitrilosides, or B17, that come from the meat of caribou and other grazing animals and also from salmonberries. There are many other groups of people throughout the world — from all races and all regions. The one thing that they have in common is that the degree to which they are free from cancer is in proportion to the amount of nitrilosides found in their native diets. While it is available in most countries, vitamin B17 cannot be sold in the United States. The reason is because it has not been approved by the FDA. That process takes years of research and costs millions of dollars. The only firms that can afford that are the large pharmaceutical companies. Since you cannot get a patent for a substance found in nature, it is not likely that this vitamin will ever be approved. In fact, since cancer treatment in the United States is a billion dollar industry, pharmaceutical companies have an interest in discrediting the vitamin deficiency theory. The FDA started a false campaign which claimed that nitriloside was toxic and dangerous because it contains cyanide. It does, in minute quantities. If you eat the seeds from a hundred apples in a day you would risk serious side effects, possibly death. If you eat enormous amounts of anything you run serious health risks. Aspirin is twenty times more toxic than the same amount of B17. In the 1970s Memorial Sloan-Kettering, a cancer center in New York, tested vitamin B17. While they publicly came out with a report that said the results were â€Å"inconclusive† and that it did no good, research doctors knew the truth. Years later Dr. Ralph Moss, one of the researchers, confessed that he had been told to give statements exactly opposite of what they were finding scientifically. Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) was able to be controlled centuries ago. I believe the evidence for vitamin B17 has been scientifically proven to do the same for cancer prevention. Since the American diet is lower than ever in nitrilocides, it is up to each person to try to eat foods that will help us live healthy lives.